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Routledge is a global publisher of academic books, journals and online resources in the humanities and social sciences.
(1880 – 1959) General of the Army and statesman. After a long military career, including service in the First World War, the Philippines and China, Marshall became Army Chief of Staff in 1939, guiding preparations for the Second World War. Command of the European invasion went to Eisenhower, while Marshall became a close policy advisor to Roosevelt and, later, special ambassador to feuding Chinese factions for Truman. As Secretary of State (1947–9), he fostered the Marshall Plan for rebuilding Europe with North American aid; he later served as Secretary of Defense. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.
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(1880 – 1964) Scion of an Army family with experience of East Asia, General MacArthur made his name in the assault on the Philippines during the Second World War. After losing the islands in an ignominious defeat in 1942, he returned triumphant in 1944, staging his own arrival on the island of Leyte for assembled journalists.
Later, in July 1950, MacArthur was named commander of the United Nations’ multinational force to aid South Korea. MacArthur orchestrated an amphibious landing at Inchon, surprising the North Koreans, who then began their retreat back across the 38th parallel. The general persuaded President Harry Truman to continue the assault to reunify the country inciting the Chinese government to intervene. After MacArthur’s forces had recovered from the onslaught of 300,000 Chinese, he still urged Truman to continue, but the president decided against this. Owing to MacArthur’s public pronouncements on the issue, Truman found it necessary to relieve MacArthur of his command in April 1951. Returning home, the general was met with a hero’s welcome, including ticker-tape parades and an address to Congress. But the military establishment supported Truman, so MacArthur would go the way of the old soldier in the Army ballad he recited for Congress: he would “just fade away”.
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(1882 – 1961) Democratic congressional leader and Speaker of the House from 1940 to 1961. Elected to the House from rural Texas in 1913, Rayburn built up formidable connections with Roosevelt and the New Deal. As Speaker in a Congress where long-term Southern representatives held key posts, Rayburn continued to promote Democratic programs in labor, defense, agriculture and even civil rights. Lyndon Johnson was his protégé. A House Office Building memorializes his decades as broker and leader.
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(1884 – 1962) Patrician by birth and marriage, Roosevelt became loved—and hated—on her own for her stands on race and human rights. Niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, she began a tumultuous marriage with her cousin Franklin Roosevelt in 1905. Increasingly active after his bout with polio, Roosevelt became (and continued to be, even after his death) a leading figure in the New Deal and liberal Democratic politics. Her commitment to integration had been made more public by her dramatic resignation from the Daughters of the American Revolution when that group barred Marian Anderson from Constitution Hall. In 1946 she founded the Americans for Democratic Action to support liberal voices within the Democratic Party, while from 1945 to 1953 she served as US delegate to the United Nations, chairing the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In 1961 President John F. Kennedy re-appointed her to the UN as well as to his Commission on the Status of Women; decades later, Hillary Clinton has identified her as a vital presence in the redefinition of the role of First Lady.
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(1884 – 1972) Elected vice-president in 1944 when Franklin D. Roosevelt won a fourth consecutive presidential term, Truman became president when Roosevelt died in April 1945. Within months he had made pivotal foreign-policy decisions: at the Potsdam Conference he and Allied leaders agreed to prosecute German leaders for war crimes committed during the Second World War; and, in August, he approved the dropping of atomic bombs on Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki, bringing an end to the Second World War.
Early in the Cold War, his administration adopted the Truman Doctrine, which developed into the policy of “containment” to halt Soviet expansion. One aspect of the Doctrine was the Marshall Plan, an economic recovery program for European nations, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance designed to protect Western Europe from Soviet aggression.
Truman began the 1948 presidential campaign as an underdog to Republican nominee Thomas Dewey. However, he defeated Dewey, proving wrong experts and a premature headline in the Chicago Tribune: “Dewey Defeats Truman.” In June 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea, prompting Truman to send United States forces to the region to protect South Korea. Led by General Douglas MacArthur, United Nations’ (UN) troops brought most of South Korea under UN control by October.
Truman is most often remembered for developing a civil-rights agenda, issuing executive orders banning discrimination in the civil service and in the armed forces, and for his phrase, “The buck stops here,” meaning ultimate responsibility rests with the president.
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(1885 – 1983) Inventor, engineer and mathematician whose optimism about technology and growth made him a scientific guru of the postwar era. Nimble in combining structures and dynamics (and labeling his projects with catchy names like his Dymaxion corporation), Fuller as inventor was best known for the geodesic dome (patented 1947), which distributes stress artfully and efficiently and which was used in the striking US Pavilion for Montreal’s Expo ’67. He also worked with general systems theory and the applications of science and technology to world peace. Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (1969) provides a strong sense of the relations of science, philosophy and global vision in his work.
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(1886 – 1969) His phrase “Less is More” epitomized the International Style. His buildings expressed twentieth-century industrial society through skin-and-bones construction. Before emigrating to the US, he worked for Peter Behrens, then Germany’s leading architect, and became associated with the Deutscher Werkbund and director of the Bauhaus from 1930 until it closed in 1933. He was appointed director of the School of Architecture at the Illinois Institute of Technology in 1937. Among his most famous works are the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona Exposition and the Seagram Building in New York City (1958), designed with Philip Johnson. His style influenced the American skyscraper throughout the twentieth century.
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(1887 – 1975) Arguably the most powerful figure in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
During his tenure as chairperson of the American Olympic Committee (1930–52), and vice-president (1945–52) and president of the International Olympic Committee (1952– 72), Brundage proved a vigorous proponent of amateurism in Olympic sport. Although he regarded both professionalism and politics as inimical to the Olympic spirit, his application of these principles was often selective. Following the 1936 Berlin Games, his praise for Nazi Germany drew considerable criticism. Also, during the Cold War, he overlooked the conflict between amateurism and the state subsidy of communist-bloc athletes.
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(1887 – 1986) Pioneering American female artist, her bold oversized flowers and abstract still-life representations of the West have made her one of the most popular figures of American abstract art. Born in Wisconsin, O’Keefe moved to New York, where she married (1924– 46) photographer and galleryowner Alfred Steiglitz. After his death, O’Keefe settled in New Mexico, where she vividly interpreted Southwestern landscapes, nature and skies.
Her colorful and intriguing images, incorporated into major museum collections, have also shaped American style and design.
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(1889 – 1979) Born in Florida, Randolph migrated to New York City in 1911, where he attended City College, becoming a socialist. In 1917 he established the radical Harlem, NY journal, The Messenger, and made his name as a writer and orator. Recruited by the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the union of the Pullman Company’s African American porters, he fought from 1925 to 1937 to gain recognition for the Brotherhood from both the American Federation of Labor and from Pullman. Following his success, Randolph, abandoning socialism, became a national spokesperson for civil rights. He organized a March on Washington in 1940, which he called off after President Roosevelt agreed to end discrimination within the government and in industries with federal contracts. He later helped persuade Truman to issue an executive order barring discrimination in the military. Later, he issued the call for the March on Washington for jobs and freedom in 1963, bringing together over 250,000 marchers to back President Kennedy’s civil-rights legislation.
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